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Effects on the European Union Economy of Shortages of Foreign Language Skills in Enterprise (ELAN)

A research study on behalf of the European Commission

Review of existing studies and survey models

By Stephen Hagen

The most relevant studies for ELAN come from the following sources:

1. Internationalisation studies, largely focused on the performance of European export SMEs
2. Surveys of language usage in SMEs
3. Studies of languages in large companies, looking at communications between the Group and its foreign subsidiaries, multinational workforce management and the development of effective language planning policies.
4. General surveys of language skills
5. Studies on the world context for languages (and English in particular)
6. Studies on the need for international management skills
7. Studies which measure language barriers as trade tariff equivalents
8. Research on cultural and intercultural factors

1. Internationalisation studies

Westhead et al (2002) put organisational and environmental variables through a multivariate statistical analysis to explain the propensity of a firm to be a successful exporter. The use of foreign languages is not specifically referred to in this study, but Westhead’s analytical frame provides a model within which language competence could be incorporated as a separate variable. It is important that ELAN uses multivariate analysis techniques to consider the impact of a number of explanatory factors jointly.

Wolff & Pett, (2000) had previously suggested that organisational factors and environmental conditions play a key role in successful exporting, alongside linguistic competence.

Lachenmaier and Wossmann (2005) report some new empirical evidence for Germany on links between innovation and exports. However, other strands of literature (eg.Debaere and Mostashari, 2005) identify causality in the opposite direction: the opportunity to sell into overseas markets increases the returns to investment in innovation, and thus motivates increases in such investment. There is evidence that high tech or innovation-intensive businesses may become exporters at a very early stage of development, sometimes internationalising from the outset. Harris and Li (2005) refer to these as 'born global' firms.

There are also some small-scale studies of market failure in export companies: Smallbone et al (1999) focuses on internationalisation in the transition economies in Central and East European countries. While SMEs in the transition economies identified price, product uniqueness and quality as the main competitive advantage in exporting, establishing customer relationships also featured as a factor, particularly in the Baltic SMEs. Though not explicitly stated, it is likely that the languages and culture would feature strongly in this.

The British Chambers of Commerce language survey (2004) explicitly looked at the impact of language skills on export performance. It identified four different profiles of export managers based in the UK, taking into account their motivations, ambitions, education and individual language competence: opportunist, developer, adaptor and enabler, and linked these with different types of export performance in their companies.

The survey found there was a direct correlation between the value an individual export manager placed on language skills within their business and their annual turnover. Only 33% of Opportunists, who valued language skills the least, had an annual export turnover above €750,000. This increased to 54% for Developers, 67% for Adapters and 77% for Enablers, who placed the most value on language skills within their business. Moreover, export sales by Opportunists were declining by an average of €75,000 a year per exporter, while Enablers’ exports were increasing by an average of €440,000 a year per exporter.

2. Surveys of language usage in SMEs

Taken together, the three studies REFLECT, ELISE and Elucidate, supported by the Leonardo da Vinci programme, provide the most comprehensive data and findings to date on the use of languages in European business. They cover ten countries : Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Spain, Sweden and the UK, and are based on company surveys as indicated in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Comparable Studies of the Use of Languages in European Business

Ireland

Country/Region	Survey (year)	Sample size (companies <500 employees)
Ireland	REFLECT (2001,2002)	233
Poland	REFLECT (2001, 2002)	166
Portugal	REFLECT (2001, 2002)	213
Denmark	ELISE (1999/2000)	52
Netherlands	ELISE (1999/2000)	92
Northern Ireland	ELISE (1999/2000)	50
Scotland	ELISE (1999/2000)	139
Sweden	ELISE (1999/2000)	44
France (Central)	ELUCIDATE (1996)	245
Germany (Southern)	ELUCIDATE (1996)	171
Spain (Western)	ELUCIDATE (1996)	124

 

The main findings of these surveys cover:

A) The number of foreign languages in use by European SMEs. This highlights a contrast between the number of companies using at least one foreign language in the English-speaking countries/regions (England and Wales 60%; Ireland 41%; Northern Ireland 52%; Scotland 54%) and the non-English speaking European countries (82%–98%). This is consistent with findings from a study of language use in the Mid West region of Ireland, where 52% of companies deal with their international markets through English (Kenny and Sheikh, 2000).

B) Which languages are in use. Whilst English is the most commonly used foreign language it is clear that many other languages are commonly used for business. For example, German is much used by Polish companies; and French and Spanish by Portuguese companies. With the exception of Spain and Portugal we see a very strong positioning of German as a major second lingua franca of European business.

C) Levels of competence. The REFLECT study shows that companies have a large proportion of staff with only basic or intermediate language skills and this is clearly a limiting factor. Ireland has the best figures for fluent and bilingual linguists. This may be partly explained by the fact that Irish companies employ more foreign nationals and/or that figures include Irish as a second language. This may be evidence that hiring native speakers is becoming a common means of overcoming communication obstacles.

D) Proportions of companies which have encountered language or cultural barriers and lost business as a result. More Spanish companies (19%) claim to have lost business than French (13%) or German (10%), while the percentage of companies facing language barriers varies between 21% (England and Wales) and 8% (Portugal).

E) Which countries or regions give rise to cultural barriers. The region most likely to cause cultural barriers for companies in England/Wales, Portugal, Northern Ireland, Scotland and the Netherlands is East Asia; Japan and China are most often cited. Trade with the Middle East poses cultural barriers, particularly for Danish and Scottish companies. Cultural problems are also posed in trading with France, particularly for English, Welsh, Polish, Irish and Dutch companies. Germany poses obstacles for the Polish, Irish and Dutch. The causes are many and varied, encompassing a wide range of societal, behavioural and interpersonal differences, which may be culture-specific.

F) What language strategies are used by companies, eg company/sales literature or web sites in foreign languages, employment of native speakers, languages as a criterion for selecting staff, language training, responding in the language of the customer, use of agents, use of external interpreters/translators.

G) The proportion of companies which have undertaken language training in the past, and those who expect to do so in the future. Danish (56%), Dutch (38%), Spanish (36%) and French (31%) companies are the most likely to provide some form of language training. Future language training is generally expected to be taken up by a minimum of a third and up to two-thirds of companies; this seems to indicate recognition of the importance of language training and, more generally, the need to prepare for new markets.

3. Large company studies of language issues

Truchot (2002) points to the spreading of the special status of English amongst globals in the 1990s. Siemens AG and the newly formed Aventis, for example, adopted English as their company language at the end of the 90s.

There is evidence that language has an impact on where a large corporation re-locates within Europe. A Japanese corporation chose to locate to an English-speaking environment purely for linguistic reasons (Hood & Truijens, 1993), while, more recently, Amazon has relocated from the UK to Ireland in 2006 citing the greater availability of diverse language skills in and around Cork (ref).

Angwin (2001) and Cartwright & Cooper (2000) note language problems arising from the increasing number of cross-border acquisitions and mergers, and that these are likely to continue, particularly in the area of human resource management.

Dhir and Goke-Pariola (2002) analyse multinational language planning in large corporates and the development of language policies. They identify how managing cultural diversity and linguistic complexity can be turned into a critical asset for large companies in the global knowledge-based economy. Knapp (1997) illustrates that the difficulties of communication between employees of the German headquarters of a large business company and the staff of its British subsidiary.

Andersen & Rasmussen (2004) in their case study of how Danish firms with subsidiaries in France solve their language problems show that horizontal communication depends almost always on a network of personal relationships, which are language-dependent. This informal information flow is the basis for an effective horizontal communication, but the issue of language skills is ignored in almost all literature on informal communication, as Marschan et al. (1997) point out. They identify how large firms which have no language strategy tend to muddle through and fail to deal with day-to-day problems of how to communicate.

Robinson (1992) and Embleton & Hagen, (1992) investigate examples of large companies with corporate policies on languages and language training designed to improve their trade performance. These include Christie’s, the art dealers, Grand Metropolitan plc, BA plc and Hertz (UK).

Feely’s study (2004) of how international firms manage their subsidiaries abroad looked into almost all aspects of the problems between headquarters and foreign subsidiaries, and identified the need for further research on the question of how language issues are resolved.

The most recent work on language policies and their implementation in larger, or global, companies is Talking Sense, a research study into the management of language skills in major companies. (Feely & Winslow, 2005). The analysis is based on a sample of 151 companies, the majority having their global headquarters based in the UK, Germany and France. The responses suggest four principal dimensions of language management in large companies:

Language Preparedness: The level of language competence possessed by the company expressed against current and anticipated needs.

Language Responsiveness: The willingness and ability of the company to accommodate to the language needs of their international partners.

Language Awareness: The extent to which language issues are embedded into the strategies and policies of the company.

Language Management: The extent to which the company is able to satisfy its language needs through prudent deployment of a variety of language management tools including for example language training and expatriation.

Nine specific approaches were evaluated in the survey, distilled from previous research on language management in multinationals:

Language Training: The use of company-funded training programmes to improve the language skills of employees.
In-House Departments: The maintenance by the company of a team of language professionals who provide translation and interpretation services.
External Providers: The contract employment of external language specialists to provide translation and interpretation services on call.
Selective Recruitment: The recruitment of specific language skilled personnel to fill identified gaps in the language skills possessed by the company.
Acculturation: The training of both international and domestic managers to understand and respond sympathetically to the cultural differences they encounter. This may or may not include some basic language training.
Expatriation: The transfer of headquarters personnel to work in the subsidiaries serving as a communications interfaces between the two.
Inpatriation: The transfer of subsidiary personnel to work at head office serving as a communications interface between the two.
Language Buddies: The establishment of a formal scheme whereby language skilled personnel within the organisation have an obligation to assist their colleagues even though they may be in different departments.
Machine Translation: The use of computer-based systems to translate text, and sometimes voice, from one language to another.

Respondents to the survey evaluated each of these nine modes of language management on a scale from 1 (the company has not employed this method) to 4 (the method is widely practised throughout the company). An aggregate Language Management score was then calculated by summing the nine responses and reducing the totals to a scale of 1 to 10. The study found that French and German companies were generally more flexible than the UK companies, offering to work in a mix of languages or in neutral English, where they could not work in their partners’ language. Only a handful of French and German companies expected to work in their own language and this applied not only to customers and joint venture partners, but also to suppliers and subsidiaries.

4. General surveys of language skills

The principal source on language skills amongst the general population is the Eurobarometer survey 2005 Language skills and Europeans http://europa.eu.int/languages/

In 2005 CILT the National Centre for Languages produced an overarching review of data on the impact of languages on the UK economy, entitled Talking World Class.

There is also data at national and local level, such as that produced in the UK on the linguistic diversity present amongst their ethnic minorities (CILT, 2005), though usage of these languages remains untapped.

5. Studies on the world context for languages

A global marketplace suggests a need for skills in a multiplicity of languages. However, the process of internationalisation has give rise to a rapid increase in the use of English by companies (Truchot, 2002).

Graddol (2006), has charted the linguistic dimension of globalisation and its implications in particular for English. As the balance of economic power shifts away from domination by the West, with the rise of the so-called BRICs economies (Brazil, Russia, India and China) the relative status and power of global languages such as Chinese, Hindi/Urdu, Portuguese and Russian will increase, according to Graddol. This process will be assisted by demographics, and the technological ‘catching up’ of other countries with the internet revolution in which English had a head start. An analysis referred to by Graddol (2006) conducted by Byte Level Research makes the point: the next Internet revolution will not be in English. While English isn’t becoming any less important on the Internet, other languages, such as Chinese, Russian, Spanish, and Portuguese, are becoming comparatively more important.

6. Studies on the need for international management skills

There is documented an increasing demand for people employed in international companies to have a specific international skill-set. Kedia and Daniel (2003) in their analysis of U.S. Business Needs for Employees with International Expertise signalled a continuing need for international business education in the US and additional international business education programmes particularly with a focus on Asia. At the very least, they argue, all business graduates needed to have an appreciation for cross-cultural differences and a global perspective.

Of the companies surveyed by the Center for International Business Education and Research at the University of Memphis in 2002, 80% said they would also place a greater emphasis on international competence among their staff over the next ten years. For example, Nehrt (1977) suggested that every manager, and not just those who deal with international business directly through exporting or having foreign operations, should have some formal education and training in international business. Moxon, O’Shea, Brown, & Escher (1997) found that global awareness and cultural sensitivity are important international skills. Webb, Mayer, Pioche and Allen (1999) suggested that business students need international training. Hoffman and Gopinath (1994) conclude that CEOs perceive international issues as relevant to the success of their firms.

Other work relating to the jobs market for executives reiterates this message. A Korn/Ferry International survey of international recruiters found that nine out of ten executive recruiters believe that the ability to speak another language is “critical to success” in Europe, Asia-Pacific and Latin America. They believe that executives who are multilingual (ie speak more than two languages fluently) have “significant competitive advantage”.

A study of export managers in the Rhône-Alpes found only 15 per cent of respondents had qualifications in international trade. However in 59 per cent of firms it was practice to speak at least two foreign languages, one being English. The two most important attributes of an export manager were identified as technical skill and language skills.

7. Studies which measure language barriers as trade tariff equivalents

Frankel, (1997) Frankel & Rose (2002), and Heliwel (1999) attempted to measure language differences as trade barriers and have quantified the costs of language barriers as between 15%-22% in terms of tariff equivalents. They also estimate that sharing a common language can increase bilateral trade by between 75% and 170%. However, Noguer & Siscart, 2003 estimate that the tariff equivalent of language as a trade barrier is a modest 6% and the value of sharing a common language to be just 11%. The Noguer & Siscart (2003) model, however, points to a series of key variables:

• Measures of political and colonial association are likely determinants of current trade flows and are potentially correlated with sharing a common language
• Price indices are implicit functions of bilateral trade barriers and any measure of the impact of language barriers on trade should account for their effect on the price indices
• Adjacency: common languages are often spoken in countries sharing a common border
• Political and free trade unions: we would expect the older members of the EU (who form a closer union) to have greater volumes of inter-trade.

Noguer & Siscart (2003) argue that language barriers vary across sectors: the tariff equivalent of language barriers is close to zero they say in sectors such as agriculture, mining, petroleum refineries, iron & steel and food. However, there are large tariff equivalents of language barriers in printing & publishing (18%); clothing (14%); professional, scientific and controlling equipment (10%). Language barriers also adversely affect international integration through the effect on factor markets, notably migration and capital flows, and hamper intra-national social harmony.

8. Research on cultural and intercultural factors

Significant work has taken place in defining cultural differences and a series of analytical frameworks exist (Shenkar, 2001).Following the example of such figures as Hofstede and Trompenaars, many academic researchers have done work in the field of cross-cultural management. The following points emerge in summary:

• transnational firms no longer have a single national culture, in the present “global communication age” collaborative cross-cultural learning is increasingly necessary to generate real understanding,
• pragmatism and “wholism” are universal concepts and there is everywhere a “parts-whole dichotomy”, even American WCOs (world-class organisations) recognise that local differentiation and recognition of cultural differences are important to success in doing business around the world,
• mental programmes change only slowly and not according to anyone’s master plan (Hofstede),
• cultural differences should not be regarded as problematical but as enriching and stimulating,
• German managers are more concerned with structure and British managers are more concerned with process,

Another branch of academic research is concerned with intercultural competence. Michael Byram (1997, 2000) is one of the chief exponents of this. The INCA Leonardo da Vinci project (2001 to 2004) used Byram’s research to develop a framework, diagnostic tool and record of achievement for the assessment of intercultural competence.

According to Langhoff (1977), a firm’s competence in dealing with managerial issues across markets is based on three different, but related abilities:

• To cope with cultural heterogeneity across different international markets,
• To harmonize its products and services and their marketing with the symbolic
  learning which target markets in different cultures assign them, and
• To identify and exploit new opportunities in foreign cultural contexts in expectation of long lasting competitive advantage.

Brake, Walker and Walker (1995) identify negotiation as one of the key skill areas for working effectively across cultures. International negotiators require additional skills and competencies on top of those required in domestic business negotiations. (Reynolds, Simintiras and Vlackou, 2002) In a study of Chinese and US executives, Tung (1989) concluded that as a determinant of the success or failure or negotiations, culture played an important but dual role. The study showed that although cultural differences in negotiation styles were perceived by executives as major causes of negotiation failure, awareness of cultural differences was not thought to be a major factor in negotiation success.

Usunier (2000) suggests a number of ways to minimise cultural impact in negotiations in order to build effective transcultural relationships:

• Being willing to adapt
• Being aware that interpreters influence meaning
• Being aware of cultural blocks to translation.
• Avoiding negative stereotyping
• Good prior preparation in inter-cultural understanding

Intercultural problems arising from the use of IT have been identified relatively recently. (Russo and Boor (1993) suggest ways in which programme interface designers might develop their products for optimal use by people from different cultures.

Conclusions

The general questions that the ELAN study will need to address are the following:

• What is the economic impact of language and cultural barriers on overseas, as well as intra-European trade, in respect of companies of different sizes and sectors?
• To what extent does the availability or non-availability of personnel skilled in different languages, and their level of linguistic competence affect trade?
• What is the relative value of having English as a business lingua franca and second language compared with other global languages like Spanish and Chinese?
• How can one measure the economic benefits of linguistic competence to trading companies and to the country’s economy as a whole?
• What are the facilitating and/or inhibiting factors for companies of all sizes in trading across, and outside, Europe?
• What communication strategies are the most effective?
• To what extent do SMEs display different characteristics to larger, global companies? What are the longer term economic implications of taking no action, and what measures could most effectively be employed to facilitate communication, ensure ease of mobility of labour and transfer of goods and services within Europe and to a wider world?

The focus of ELAN will be on estimating the extent to which a broader sample of European companies, and company types, are at a disadvantage if they do not possess relevant language and intercultural skills. From studying the impact of communication on a range of companies, from smaller business and larger across a larger sample of European companies than has been the case hitherto, it should be possible to produce a more accurate holistic picture of the current situation in Europe and produce a series of policy recommendations in relation to possible actions to be taken to facilitate effective trade.

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Contacts

Prof. Stephen Hagen
Telephone: 07970 526569

Teresa Tinsley: Project Director
Telephone: 020 7395 0817

Derek Winslow: Project Manager
Telephone: 01527 821072